Raw Beef Consumption Bovine Cysticerosis Africa

Mini Review - (2017) Volume 2, Issue ii

Mini-Review on Bovine Cysticercosis

Tewodros Alemneh^1*,4, Tewodros Adem^2,four and Dawit Akeberegn^three,4

¹Woreta Town Office of Agriculture and Environmental Protection, Woreta, Federal democratic republic of ethiopia

²Metema Woreda Part of Agriculture and Rural Development, Metema, Gondar, Ethiopia

³Debre Berhan Town Municipality Office, Meat Inspection and Hygiene, Debre Berhan, Federal democratic republic of ethiopia

⁴Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Academy of Gondar, Federal democratic republic of ethiopia

*Corresponding Author:

Tewodros Alemneh
Researcher, Faculty of Veterinarian Medicine
University of Gondar, Federal democratic republic of ethiopia
Tel: 251920499820
E-postal service: [email protected]

Received Engagement: March 13, 2017; Accepted Date: March 23, 2017; Published Date: April 04, 2017

Citation: Alemneh T, Adem T, Akeberegn D. Mini Review on Bovine Cysticercosis. J Healthc Commun. 2017, 2:2. doi: 10.4172/2472-1654.100055

Abstract

Bovine cysticercosis, a disease caused past larvae of the human being intestinal cestod, Teania saginata, is one of the major parasitic diseasesthat accept significant touch on the health of animals and on the economy by carcass and organ condemnation. The life bicycle of the parasite pertains betwixt animals and humans. Cattle act as an intermediate host; while man is a definitive host. The disease has worldwide distribution and transmitted to humans mainly by ingestion of raw uncooked meat. The faecal-oral route highly contributes for the parasite to infect cattle from ingestion of contaminated pasture with infected homo stool. The lungs, heart, liver, tongue, shoulder musculus, masseter muscle and diaphragm are the predilection sites for the parasite. Eating of cooked meat and proper hygienic practices should be incorporated in the prevention and control of the disease

Keywords

Bovine cysticercosis; Economical importance; Zoonotic importance

Introduction

Cysticercosis is a muscular infection of cattle and is acquired by larvae of the human being intestinal cestod, Teania saginata. Its life cycle is entirely dependent on the link between homo and cattle and then that any interruption in this links can result in the total emptying of the parasite (Effigy 1). Tapeworm infections have been recorded in history from 1500 B.C. and take been recognized as i of the earliest man parasite [one]. Cysts of Cysticercus bovis can be found anywhere in the carcass, meat and viscera [two]. The distribution of T. saginata is wider in developing countries where aseptic conditions are poor and where the inhabitants traditionally eat raw meat or insufficiently cooked meat [3,four]. Xl per centum (xl%) of the cases was reported to occur in Africa [iii]. World Health System (WHO) [4] has reported that this disease is very common in developing countries like Ethiopia. It is associated with poor hygiene and local factors including cultural groundwork (eating raw meat "Kurt", Kitfo" semi cooked leblebtibis), economic condition and religious beliefs, close proximity of humans to cattle kept with little or no distinction between companion or utility functions [3]. In countries where T. saginata is mutual and cattle ingested tape worm ova oft during grazing, an active immunity can develop and the incidence of C. bovis follows a definite age design [3]. Slaughtering is frequently carried out in open air in the absence of abattoirs [3]. Transmission of the parasite occurs almost normally in the environment characterized by poor sanitation, primitive livestock husbandry practice and inadequate meat inspection, management, control police force [v]. Bovine cysticerosis is responsible for considerable amount of economic losses which can approach 30% when allowance is made for the loss in the carcass weight and the cost of freezing for the infected meat [6]. The health caused by the developed worms in homo gives rise to loftier medical costs [7]. Generally, the loss is determined by disease prevalence, grade of the animals infected, potential markets, prices of cattle and treatment costs for detained carcass [8] and medical costs for infected homo beings [7]. The boilerplate annual loss due to taenicidal drugs for treatment in Ethiopia was estimated to be 4,937,583.21 Ethiopian Birr [ix-xi]. Bovine cysticercosis is widely distributed in Ethiopia and a number of individuals reported the prevalence of bovine cysticercosis in different parts of the country. Co-ordinate to these reports, a prevalence of 9.seven% in Gondar by Amsalu [12], 21% in Nekemte past Ahmed [9], 13.85% in Debre Zeit by Getachew [13], 19.five% in Bahir Dar by Mulugeta [fourteen] and 3.2% in unlike agro climatic zones by Tembo [15] was recorded. The nation's domestic meat consumption of about 45% comes from cattle, which generates export income mainly from the auction of live animals. In strange trade, Ethiopia builds a large market place in the Middle Eastward. All the same, the country's participation in exporting live animals is non all the same flourished [16].

Figure ane: Life cycle of Taenia saginata [24].

On the other hand, the contributions of C. bovis to organ condemnation in slaughtered cattle at unlike abattoirs have been reported [17,18]. Information technology is a great problem in developing countries similar Ethiopia due to the cultural habit of eating raw meat in the form of "kurt" and "kitffo" every bit routine dish and during holidays has promoted the spread of man taeniasis throughout the country [19]. The above mentioned problems let the parasite to continue its life cycle till to engagement and in the coming future [20]. Therefore, the objective of this Mini-Review is to compile some available information on bovine cysticercosis and to create awareness virtually the transmission and command strategies of the parasite.

Taxonomic Nomenclature

The unarmed meat tape worm of human: Taeinea saginata, and its metacestode, Cysticercus bovis, vest to the class of cestoda, order Cyclophylidea, family unit Taeniidae and genus Taenia [i].

Adult worm

Taenia saginata is ribbon–shaped flattened, multi segmented and hermaphrodite. The body is divided in to iii distinct parts of scolex (head), neck and strobilla. T. saginata measures four-eight m in lengths and rarely measures up to 15 m. Anteriorly, the scolex has four muscular suckers of unarmed, no rostllum and number of these being relatively characteristics of a species [ane].

Larvae

Over a period of three to iv months the cysticerci are plant after the egg is ingested and may remain in the intermediate host for up to 9 calendar month or even upwards to the unabridged life of the host [21]. The larval phase or metacestodes are constitute in the masseter musculus, tongue, eye, diaphragm [22]. C. bovis is small (pea sized) in shape [23]. C. bovis is grayish white, nearly one cent meter in bore and filled with fluid in which the scolex is often conspicuously visible. As in the adult record worm, it neither has rostllum nor hooks. Although the cyst may occur anywhere in striated muscle, the predilection sites are the heart, the natural language, masseter and inter-costal muscles [i,24].

Epidemiology

Prevalence and distribution of Taeinea saginata

The prevalence and distribution of Taeniasis/cysticercosis (Taeinea saginata) could roughly be classified in to three groups: mainly those countries or regions with depression infection rates less than 0.1%, moderate infection rate and highly endemic with prevalence in a population exceeding x%. This includes fundamental and eastward African countries like Ethiopia, Kenya and Zaire (Table ane). Those with moderate infection charge per unit (owned case) encompass areas like Caucasian and South central Asia Republics of USSR and in the Mediterranean (Syria, Lebanese republic and Yugoslavia) and countries with prevalence beneath 0.9% or fifty-fifty free from taeniosis include: North America, Commonwealth of australia and Newzland [1]. Out of 77 meg bovine taeniasis carries of the world nearly 40% live in Africa. The highest being in Ethiopian, it has been reported by different travelers who has come to Ethiopian in ancient times which is documented in medical history of Federal democratic republic of ethiopia. A contempo questionnaire survey in key and North Westward part of this land showed T. saginata to be in proportion of 84.9% and 67.seven% among the population [fifteen]. This situation of the affliction in Africa is quite common, reaching 3.2.vii.5% in Nigeria, 12.v% in Botswana, greater than 10% in Sudan, 30-36% in Republic of kenya, xv% in Rwanda, 20% in Guinea and 31% in Republic of burundi [21].

Country	Prevalence in %	Source
Republic of zambia	6.1	Dorney, 2002
Namibia	vi.2 in communal, 2.3 commercial	Kumba, 2001
Egypt	0.23 in native cattle 7.2 in imported cattle	Haridy, 1999
Kenya	33.02 14-xviii.2	Oyango –Abuje, 1996 Fulorovo, 1982
Zaire	22.3	Fulorovo, 1982
Chad	half dozen.67	Fulorovo, 1982
Nigeria	10.2	Fulorovo, 1982
Federal democratic republic of ethiopia	two.2-3.2 three.2	Teka, 1997 Tembo, 2001

Tabular array one: Prevalence of Cysticercus bovis in some African countries [27].

Prevalence and distribution of Cysticercus bovis

The incidence of bovine cysticercosis varies depending on many factors, the major ones are, the degree of the contact between man and cattle and the livestock management organisation in livestock practice as well some other factors. According to WHO [21], the incidence of C. bovis could be hyperendemic, endemic and epidemic cysticercosis. Hyper epidemic condition occurs in pastoral areas and it is likewise a mutual epidemiological movie in Africa. For instance; according some studies in Kenya, bovine cysticercosis is high in the market district where cattle graze forth the side of stock men for most of the day and brought dorsum to their houses in the evening. This practice ensures continuous man and cattle contact which makes the incidence of cysticercosis very high amongst their cattle [25]. Epidemics of cysticercosis is usually associated with feed lots is becoming serious problems, may arise either from straight contamination of feed lot with eggs or from the introduction of contaminated fodder silage contaminated with feces of laborers. Owned cysticercosis or urban cysticercosis: this is associated concentration of localities with around urban long numeration, recreation areas, regions with developed agricultural industry as well equally long rivers and master roads [21]. Contaminated with sewage workers of feed or effluent discharged in to rivers and to occasional flooding of pasture past infected individuals in dissimilarity to the epidemiology in developing countries. Cattle of any age are susceptible to infected [1]. There are considerable variations in the prevalence of the disease in unlike areas that are not hands explained by existing data. However, it appears that taenia infections and cystic infections are unremarkably associated with poor groups [26]. Amongst human or animal wastes, sewage sludge, manure and slurry used in agriculture are existent wellness business concern. Sewage sludge has been used for years as land fertilizer in many countries and this could serve every bit possible source of pathogens and important component [21].

Life Cycle

The life bicycle of T. sginata is indirect where the definitive host is man and intermediate host is cattle [i]. Man is infected by the ingestion of raw uncooked parasitized meat [21]. Simply fresh, viable C. bovis cysts are infective formally [27,28]. An infected human passes millions of eggs daily either gratuitous in the stool or every bit intact segment and each containing 250,000 eggs and these tin survive on pasture for several calendar month [1]. The oncosphere travels via claret to the striated muscle where information technology encysts and matures to exist infective to man in virtually 12 weeks. Once in the brute torso, the eggs accomplish and the larval work their manner in to musculus tissue. Fortunately, cattle cannot transmit the disease among themselves [1]. Nonetheless, they tin can ingest eggs from human sewage and excrement that have contaminated h2o and feed, or by liking soiled utensils. Eating cyst-laden and incompletely cooked meat, on the other paw may touch on human. Humans cannot spread cysticercosis to their own species [21]. Finally, human being being becomes infected by ingesting raw or inadequately cooked meat, which contains feasible cysts [29].

Economic Importance

Economical losses resulting from food borne parasitic zoonoses are difficult to appraise. Estimating the global economic impact, prevalence and public health importance of these parasitic zoonoses are handicapped by inadequate data [30]. Economical losses from cysticercosis are determined by disease prevalence, class of animal's infected, potential market price of cattle and treatment cost for detained carcasses [26]. For example, in Republic of botswana and Republic of kenya, the incidence of C. bovis at export abattoirs is about 8% and 12%, respectively. Annual losses in Botswana now approaches to 0.5 million pounds; while in Kenya it is nigh 1 million pounds. Similarly, the loss per brute slaughtered in Botswana is 2.25 one thousand thousand pounds; while in Kenya it is about 1 meg pounds [21]. In fed lots situation, cysticercosis can cause a crippling economic below and may forbid the survival of the enterprise, especially where it is not able to insure against such losses ane such loss was estimated at 2,567,799 dollars in Yugoslavia [21]. The economic significance of developed parasite T. saginata and the proportion of carriers requiring hospital treatment was over xx% in Poland and 10% in France it is also assumed that each carrier misses ane day work on average in France [21]. The economic impact of the disease in the price implication tin can be broken down in to those involved in treating man taeniosis and cattle carcass (toll of freezing) Or condemned as well costs involved in the inspection procedures corporeality to a million of dollars. Lightly infected carcasses can be easily missed and passed for homo consumption; thus infection manual is maintained betwixt human and cattle taeniosis (Cysticercosis) remaining a wide spread zoonosis that affects homo health and economy through condemnation, quality deposition of frozen meat, price of refrigeration, cost of human therapy efficiency by creating un easiness (Figure 1) [27]. In Federal democratic republic of ethiopia, there is a wide usage of both traditional and modern taenicidal drugs (Table 2) [26], which is an indication of the economic importance of the drug in each house hold. The total dose of Niclosamide and Diclorophen production in the drug factories in this state between 1996 and 2000 was 31,814,833. By and large, condemnation of meat and organs from infected animals are the causes of reduction of meat product and restriction on import export merchandise [27].

Local Name	Scientific Name	Parts Used
Bisana	Crrotonmacro satchuys	Bawl
Bisana	Crotonmacro satchuys	Seed
Enkoko	Embelia schimperi	Fruits
Dubafire	Cucurbita pepo	Seed
Kosso	Hagenica abyssinia	Flowers

Table 2: Major taenicidal herbs used in Federal democratic republic of ethiopia arranged in decreasing social club of potency [26].

Zoonotic Importance

Man is the only terminal host where the adult Taenia saginata resides in the small intestine. The size reached past the adult worm is related to the number of worms present [31]. In a single worm infection, a worm tin develop longer and produce large number of proglottids [24]. Multiple infections up to twenty tapeworms in one host are often occurring in developing countries [five]. Tapeworms can likewise cause abdominal obstruction [32]. Taenia saginata in the small intestine of man absorbs digested food from the mean solar day the cysticercus is ingested it may take ii-three months for the parasite to produce ripe segments. As long every bit the scolices are attached to the abdominal mucosa of the victim new segments will continually abound to supervene upon those, which are being discrete from the worm [33]. Transmission between animals and man depend on etiological factors such as human habits, beliefs, faith and beliefs. They influence the blazon of nutrient human being consumers and the style of preparation. Some of these practices are based on the hundreds of years of traditional Example of this could be eating of raw meat in the form of 'kitfo' 'Lebleb', and kurt in Ethiopia. In Egypt, Turkey and Middle E a beef dish known as caunters "basterma" or kebaba-like fishes "basterma "or semi-raw meat used equally staffing for regional: dishes are responsible for transmission teniasis [21].

Diagnosis

In human

Adult cestodes can be expelled from human using Anthelmentics followed past a saline purgative and identified based on the scolex and proglottid morphology. In man beings, the diagnosis is established by examination of the eggs in the stools or gross examination of the proglosttids or segments passed in the stool. Diagnosis is based on symptoms, fecal examination and rectal swabs, although it is difficult to notice the disease during the first iii months. A person should not be considered uninfected before having 3 negative examination completed over a 2-iii days interval. T. saginata egg can be distinguished from T. solium or other tape worms such as echinococcus by their morphology. However ELISA and PCR tin can differentiate the eggs of T. solium from T. saginata and morphology can exist used to distinguish these proglottides [34].

In animals

Information technology is hard in live animals to diagnoses the presence of C. bovis in the muscles. Thus diagnosis can be performed simply at mail service mortem examinations past direct observation of C. bovis in the muscles [28]. Live cattle bear witness no symptoms, and then that it becomes extremely important to identify the cysts during met inspection. A previous history of infestation on the animate being premises also acts as available diagnostic tool. Serological tests are as well available to detect the disease in alive animals. The IHAT with 100% sensitivity and 91-100% specificity tin can be used as a diagnostic test for epidemiological survey, to map infected and disease gratuitous areas and to estimate the natural prevalence of the affliction [27].

Risk Factors for Taenia saginata and Cysticercus bovis

Ecology factors

Emphasis has been placed on the environmental factors that affect the costless living egg. The infective blueprint of taeniids in their intermediate host is determined past complex interaction of parasite and host related factors. Many of these have been examined but particularly accent placed on environmental factors that touch determining the infective pattern. The dynamic of this aspect of transmission has been previously neglected [35].

Egg output and dispersal in the arrangement

The biotic potential of micro climatic effects of the environment, the egg output of T. saginata worms have been before described in this newspaper. The daily output runs in to several hundred thousand eggs. The important epidemiological aspects is the ways in which the enormous number of eggs dispersed following expulsion in proglottids and carrion so that they become readily available to the intermediate hosts [36]. The primary sites of egg deposition determine the motility and defecation habit of the definitive host. How every, evidence is accumulating the considerable dispersion occurs almost immediately after defection. Intermediate host, cattle generally avoid grazing areas contaminated with feces. Thus, dispersal increases the chance the existence ingested. The combination of high biotic potential and long range dispersal means that private infective host over a very wide area [37]. Equally a gamble for the occurrence of the affliction recently such idea has been reported past Cabart et al. [37]: emphasizing the need of surveillance on the employ of urbane sewage on pastures because of the cysticercosis threat. Birds like sea gulls and other scavenging birds have been implicated in the transfer of egg of T. saginata from sewage to pasture [24]. The possible role of the soil fauna in the epidemiology of cysticercosis particularly worth worms could be a possible candidate for dispersion of the eggs. Furthermore many arthropods have been implicated in egg dispersal, including flies, beetles, ants, fleas, and cockroaches. The accident flies and dung beetles appear to be the most probable candidate due to their ecological association with fecal material [38].

Egg longevity and duration of infectivity

It will be very important to define factors that are lethal to the eggs because it volition give us an over view of the epidemiological significance of the ageing process and another factors on the duration of infectivity. In damp temperate climates, the oncosphere of the beef tape worm can with stand desiccation in the surroundings for about ten months are feasible for 130 days in pure water, liver for upwardly to lxx days at temperature varying from +iv to -38°C and practise non die in winter. In summer, solar radiations destroys the oncospheres on soil surface with in two days. How every, under the protection of a institute comprehend they can survive for upwardly to 40 days. In the micro climate of cattle the egg can stay upwardly to 18 months [35].

Temperature

Under laboratory weather the viability of isolated eggs of T. saginata is much college when compared with those inside a prognostic. At temperatures 19-37°C longevity varies from 27-29 h to 2-3 days, and at 40°C it is about 62-64 days. With regards to humidity, the eggs of T. saginata practice not survive in vitro in the absence of surface moisture [21].

Intrinsic factors (Host factors)

The survival of the parasite population is also dependent up on the intrinsic regulatory mechanisms of the intermediate host population. In addition, immunity to super infection is acquitted and larva survives in only proportion of intermediate population. Only that proportion will play any active part in the manual of cysticercoids, before the onset of caused resistance in the intermediate hosts. The infective pattern of larva cestodes will be modified by the infection pressure, the age of the host at the time of the commencement infection, feeding habit, livestock motion, egg dispersed and the invasiveness of the embryo. Workers in Kenya have shown that most cases of bovine cysticercosis are acquired in early calf hood, calves from birth to 28 days being highly susceptible to artificial infection [26]. However, all historic period groups of cattle are susceptible to infection young animal existence more susceptible than older ones which tend to be more resistant [29]. In heavily endemic areas information technology is likely that calves encounter infection in the showtime few days of life after which they become progressively more resistant. Both sexes are susceptible. One of the important factors that determine the infective design is the time interval later ingestion of the first egg by immunological competent animals where thy remain susceptible to super infection cattle produce immunity within 12-16 days after infection, the level of titers stabilized in the haemagglutination reaction which remain positive throughout the time of serological study (250 days post infection). In calves have demonstrated that cysticerci perish and go calcified afterward one-12 months not only in strongly infected animals, simply even when infestations were relatively depression. On the contrary; researchers in Kenya accept indicated that calves infected with beef tape worm onchospher in the first days after birth behave viable cysts during their unabridged life, developing persistent immunity to reinfection fifty-fifty if the charge per unit of infestation is very low [3].

Treatment

For the treatment of the taeniosis there are a number of taenicidal drugs available in the market. However, the drugs of selection in treating taeniosis are Niclosamide. Developed dose rate of 200 mg is effective in dissentious the worm. Albendazole is a broad spectrum anthelmentic of the Benzimadazole Carbanate class, which is constructive against larva and developed stage of cestodes and treamtode [21]. In addition, Praziquentel, 5-15 mg/kg, is constructive. Alternatively, a single 2 yard dose of Niclosamice is given as four tablets (500 mg each that are chewed 1 at a time and swallowed with a small corporeality of water (0.5 g is the dose of children 2-5 years one-time, 1 yard for old children) Both drugs take cure rates of nigh ninety% Treatment can be considered successful when no proglottides are passed again within iv months [39]. In Federal democratic republic of ethiopia, the majority of the rural inhabitants employ traditional herbal drugs in routine self-deworming practices as a taenicidal herb, which has been a major concern for researchers [26].

Control and Prevention

Prevention of infection in cattle

Health education should be regarded as the fundamental cistron in obtaining the commitment for development of, and continuing interest in a control program. Proper health education should principally exist oriented to diminish the number of record worm carriers, thus lowering the egg output, change in attitudes, traditional, socio-cultural and behavioral factors that favor a high infection pressure from carriers, and educate people on the prevention and control [21]. In the prevention of infection from man to animals; special attention should be paid to persons likely to infect food animals (cattle), such as farmers, agricultural workers, hunters and tourists. Farmers should be informed the hazard of association with the life bicycle of the parasite. They should be encouraged to report the presence of infection, employ toilets and avoid contamination of the surroundings [nineteen]. Immunity to larval tapeworm infection plays an of import role in the dynamic transmission of the parasite. In general, all-encompassing studies have been under taken to characterize the immune response to cysticercosis in cattle [40].

Prevention of human infection

The traditional methods of slaughter, dressing and marketing create difficulties for inspection. Time is lost during manual killing and dressing of caresses and butchers may too oppose inspection due to fears loss of earnings [31]. Wellness education of the general public is a central after in the prevention of taeniosis/cysticercosis: however, the follow methods of control are important. Meat inspection in abattoir is the major manner of ensuring that consumers are supplied with 'measly' gratis beef as long as the law enforcement apropos a carcasses infection with Cysticercus bovis are strictly followed. Information technology is suggested that effectively improve meat inspection based on the type of the beast, husbandry history and the target of homo population of consumption [41]. In addition, other control approaches such as immune diagnosis should exist developed and implemented to complete meat inspection procedures. When infection is detected in a carcass the judgment varies from country to country just it has been recommended appropriately [21]. Less contaminated meat should exist trimmed and slightly or moderately infected carcass should be thoroughly looked and frozen. From the command of T. Saginata freezing the cyst is the well-nigh ideal method used in abattoirs of international standards. In general, freezing for 48 h at a temperature of -x°C for ten days is recommended [39].

Conclusion

The wide distribution of Taenia saginata (Cysticercus bovis) is associated with several factors including: Raw and under cooked beef consumption, bush-league defecation and poor waste matter disposal, poor sludge and sewage treatment organisation, depression level of public sensation, and presence of backyard (village) slaughtering practices. Therefore, Veterinarians and Medical professions need to work in collaboration for the control of the disease. In addition, public health awareness should be created through public media on improving personal and environmental hygiene for breaking the life cycle of the disease.

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